What is diarrhea?
Diarrhea is loose, watery stools. A person with diarrhea typically passes stool more than three times a day. People with diarrhea may pass more than a quart of stool a day. Acute diarrhea is a common problem that usually lasts 1 or 2 days and goes away on its own without special treatment. Prolonged diarrhea persisting for more than 2 days may be a sign of a more serious problem and poses the risk of dehydration. Chronic diarrhea may be a feature of a chronic disease.
Diarrhea can cause dehydration, which means the body lacks enough fluid to function properly. Dehydration is particularly dangerous in children and older people, and it must be treated promptly to avoid serious health problems. See Dehydration.
People of all ages can get diarrhea and the average adult has a bout of acute diarrhea about four times a year. In the United States, each child will have had seven to 15 episodes of diarrhea by age 5.
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What causes diarrhea?
Acute diarrhea is usually related to a bacterial, viral, or parasitic infection. Chronic diarrhea is usually related to functional disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome or inflammatory bowel disease.
A few of the more common causes of diarrhea include the following:
Bacterial infections. Several types of bacteria consumed through contaminated food or water can cause diarrhea. Common culprits include Campylobacter, Salmonella, Shigella, and Escherichia coli (E. coli).
Viral infections. Many viruses cause diarrhea, including rotavirus, Norwalk virus, cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex virus, and viral hepatitis.
Food intolerances. Some people are unable to digest food components such as artificial sweeteners and lactose—the sugar found in milk.
Parasites. Parasites can enter the body through food or water and settle in the digestive system. Parasites that cause diarrhea include Giardia lamblia, Entamoeba histolytica, and Cryptosporidium.
Reaction to medicines. Antibiotics, blood pressure medications, cancer drugs, and antacids containing magnesium can all cause diarrhea.
Intestinal diseases. Inflammatory bowel disease, colitis, Crohn’s disease, and celiac disease often lead to diarrhea.
Functional bowel disorders. Diarrhea can be a symptom of irritable bowel syndrome.
Some people develop diarrhea after stomach surgery or removal of the gallbladder. The reason may be a change in how quickly food moves through the digestive system after stomach surgery or an increase in bile in the colon after gallbladder surgery.
People who visit foreign countries are at risk for traveler’s diarrhea, which is caused by eating food or drinking water contaminated with bacteria, viruses, or parasites. Traveler’s diarrhea can be a problem for people visiting developing countries. Visitors to the United States, Canada, most European countries, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand do not face much risk for traveler’s diarrhea. See Preventing Traveler’s Diarrhea.
In many cases, the cause of diarrhea cannot be found. As long as diarrhea goes away on its own, an extensive search for the cause is not usually necessary.
Terjemahan:
Apa itu diare?
Diare adalah longgar, kotoran berair. Seseorang dengan diare biasanya melewati bangku lebih dari tiga kali sehari. Orang dengan diare dapat lulus lebih daripada satu liter bangku sehari. diare akut adalah masalah umum yang biasanya berlangsung 1 atau 2 hari dan akan hilang dengan sendirinya tanpa rawatan khusus. diare berkepanjangan bertahan selama lebih dari 2 hari mungkin merupakan tanda dari masalah yang lebih serius dan menimbulkan risiko dehidrasi diare. kronik mungkin ciri-ciri penyakit kronik.
Diare boleh menyebabkan dehidrasi, yang bermaksud bahawa tubuh tidak memiliki cukup cecair untuk berfungsi dengan baik. Dehidrasi sangat berbahaya pada anak-anak dan orang tua, dan harus segera dirawat untuk mengelakkan masalah kesihatan yang serius. Lihat dehidrasi .
Orang-orang dari segala usia boleh terkena diare dan rata-rata orang dewasa mempunyai bout diare akut sekitar empat kali setahun. Di Amerika Syarikat, setiap anak akan memiliki tujuh hingga 15 episod diare pada usia 5 tahun.
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Apa yang menyebabkan diare?
Diare akut biasanya berkaitan dengan jangkitan bakteria, virus, atau parasit. Diare kronik biasanya berkaitan dengan gangguan fungsional seperti sindrom kerengsaan usus besar atau penyakit inflamasi usus.
Beberapa penyebab yang lebih umum dari diare adalah sebagai berikut:
jangkitan bakteria. Beberapa jenis bakteria yang digunakan melalui makanan atau air yang tercemar boleh menyebabkan diare. penyebab umum termasuk Campylobacter, Salmonella, Shigella, dan Escherichia coli (E. coli).
jangkitan virus,. Banyak menyebabkan diare termasuk virus rotavirus, Norwalk virus, cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex virus, dan virus hepatitis.
Makanan intoleransi. Beberapa orang tidak mampu mencerna bahagian makanan seperti pemanis buatan dan gula-laktosa yang ditemui dalam susu.
Parasit. Parasit dapat memasuki badan melalui makanan atau air dan menetap dalam sistem pencernaan. Parasit yang menyebabkan diare termasuk giardia lamblia, Entamoeba histolytica, dan Cryptosporidium.
Reaksi terhadap ubat-ubatan,. Antibiotik ubat tekanan darah, ubat kanser, dan antasid yang mengandungi magnesium semua boleh menyebabkan diare.
penyakit usus usus. inflamasi penyakit, kolitis, Crohn's penyakit, dan penyakit celiac sering menyebabkan diare.
gangguan usus Fungsional boleh. Diare merupakan gejala dari sindrom kerengsaan usus besar.
Beberapa orang mengembangkan diare selepas pembedahan perut atau penghapusan poket empedu. Alasan mungkin perubahan dalam cara cepat bergerak makanan melalui sistem pencernaan selepas pembedahan perut atau peningkatan empedu dalam usus selepas operasi kandung empedu.
Orang yang melawat negara asing berisiko untuk diare traveler's, yang disebabkan oleh makan makanan atau minum air yang tercemar dengan bakteria, virus, atau parasit. diare Traveler's boleh menjadi masalah bagi orang melawat negara-negara membangun. Pengunjung ke Amerika Syarikat, Kanada, sebahagian besar negara Eropah, Jepun, Australia, dan New Zealand tidak banyak menghadapi risiko diare perjalanan. Lihat Traveler's Mencegah Diare .
Dalam banyak kes, punca diare tidak dapat dijumpai. Selama diare akan hilang dengan sendirinya, satu carian yang banyak untuk penyebabnya biasanya tidak diperlukan.
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Apa saja gejala diare?
Diare boleh disertai dengan kram, sakit perut, kembung, mual, atau keperluan mendesak untuk menggunakan bilik mandi.Tergantung dari penyebabnya, seseorang boleh mengalami demam berdarah atau tahi.
Fowl Cholera - adalah sangat, berjangkit penyakit serius yang disebabkan oleh bakteria Pasteurella multocida dalam pelbagai spesies burung termasuk ayam, Kalkun, dan unggas air, (rangka peningkatan kerentanan). Hal ini terlihat di seluruh dunia dan merupakan salah satu penyakit berjangkit yang pertama harus diakui, oleh Louis Pasteur pada tahun 1880. Penyakit ini boleh berkisar dari septicemia akut terhadap jangkitan kronik dan tempatan dan morbiditas dan kematian mungkin hingga 100%. Laluan jangkitan mulut atau hidung dengan penghantaran melalui eksudat hidung, kotoran, tercemar tanah, peralatan, dan orang-orang. Masa inkubasi biasanya 5-8 hari. Bakteria ini dengan mudah dihancurkan oleh faktor persekitaran dan desinfektan, tapi bisa bertahan untuk waktu lama dalam tanah. Reservoir jangkitan dapat hadir pada spesies lain seperti tikus, kucing, dan mungkin babi.
CRD - Cronic Respiratory Desease
| Incidence | Very widespread and present in most, if not all, commercial flocks. Each batch of new pullets will become infected. |
|---|---|
| Transmission | CRD is the most prevalent of the so-called 'stress diseases'.Mycoplasma gallisepticum may be present in the tissues of healthy birds (carrier birds). Outbreaks occur most frequently when the flock's vitality is lowered either during times of stress - often caused by moving, chilling, vaccinating, beak trimming, worming, poor ventilation, damp litter and ammonia build-up - or in the presence of other diseases. Transmission may occur even in flocks that appear to be perfectly healthy. Egg transmission is very important as it is the means by which the disease perpetuates itself. The disease is airborne (aerosol) and generally rapid, but it does not travel distances. The disease is transferred most often when infected carrier birds are introduced to the flock or people such as service personnel, vaccinators and blood testers transport it. The risk is great when people handle CRD-free birds the day after handling CRD-infected birds. It can also be transferred on equipment, such as crates, vehicles and vaccinating equipment. |
| Incubation period | Incubation is 5 to 10 days. |
| Signs | Signs include sniffing, rattling, sneezing, coughing and other signs of respiratory distress. Birds may have wet noses, retarded growth (in growing birds) and a production loss of 20 to 30 per cent in hens. The disease spreads slowly through the flock with a continual cycle of reinfection, so the disease never disappears by itself. Deaths are few in uncomplicated cases. Financial losses occur due to poor feed conversion, retarded growth, drug costs, mortality, increased culling and poor production. |
Coryza - Infectious coryza is a respiratory disease found in many species of birds, including poultry, with chickens being particularly vulnerable to the disease. This bacterial disease has similarities with the common cold and indeed cold is one of its common names. The disease is found worldwide and takes a particular toll on those who are running smaller operations. The disease is caused by a gram-negative bacterial species called Hemophilus paragallinarum that has three antigenic types that are labelled A to C. The species requires the presence of V factor in order to grow. Incubation of the disease is only a couple of days but infection can last anything from one to three months. Transmission is by contact between birds but could also happen by ingesting contaminated food stuff and water or even via inhalation of infected aerosols or transportation by the clothes of farm workers and the implements found on the farm. Cold-like symptoms such as coughing and sneezing as well as rotten smelling nasal discharge are to be found in the infected birds. Other symptoms include swelling of the face and lacrimation (watering of the eyes). Typically lethargy will set in and the birds will go off their food and water. The symptoms may be complicated by the presence of other diseases in the birds such as sinusitis and mycoplasma. The mortality rate can be anything up to 50%.
Newcastle disease is a contagious bird disease affecting many domestic and wild avian species. Its effects are most notable in domestic poultry due to their high susceptibility and the potential for severe impacts of an epidemic on the poultry industries. It is endemic to many countries.
Newcastle Disease was discovered in Newcastle upon Tyne, England in 1926 (Doyle), but also at this time slightly different strains were found in other parts of the world.
Exposure of humans to infected birds (for example in poultry processing plants) can cause mildconjunctivitis and influenza-like symptoms, but the Newcastle disease virus (NDV) otherwise poses no hazard to human health. Interest in the use of NDV as an anticancer agent has arisen from the ability of NDV to selectively kill human tumour cells with limited toxicity to normal cells.
No treatment for NDV exists, but the use of prophylactic vaccines and sanitary measures reduces the likelihood of outbreaks.
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[edit]The causal agent
[edit]Description
The causal agent, Newcastle disease virus (NDV), is a negative-sense single-stranded RNA virus. Transmission occurs by exposure to faecal and other excretions from infected birds, and through contact with contaminated feed, water, equipment and clothing.
[edit]Strains
NDV strains can be categorised as velogenic (highly virulent), mesogenic (intermediate virulence) or lentogenic (nonvirulent). Velogenic strains produce severe nervous and respiratory signs, spread rapidly and cause up to 90% mortality. Mesogenic strains cause coughing, affect egg quality and production and result in up to 10% mortality. Lentogenic strains produce mild signs with negligible mortality.
[edit]Use as an anti-cancer agent
In 1999, promising results were reported using an attenuated strain of the Newcastle virus codenamed MTH-68 in cancer patients[1] by researchers who had isolated the strain in 1968[2][3]. It appears that the virus preferentially targets and replicates in certain types of tumor cells, leaving normal cells almost unaffected. In 2006 researchers from the Hebrew University also succeeded in isolating a variant of the Newcastle Disease Virus codenamed NDV-HUJ which showed promising results in 14 Glioblastoma multiforme patients[4].
[edit]Use as a biological weapon
Newcastle disease was one of more than a dozen agents that the United States researched as potential biological weapons before the nation suspended its biological weapons program[citation needed].
[edit]Transmission
NDV is spread primarily through direct contact between healthy birds and the bodily discharges of infected birds. The disease is transmitted through infected birds' droppings and secretions from the nose, mouth, and eyes. NDV spreads rapidly among birds kept in confinement, such as commercially raised chickens.
High concentrations of the NDV are found in birds' bodily discharges; therefore, the disease can be spread easily by mechanical means. Virus-bearing material can be picked up on shoes and clothing and carried from an infected flock to a healthy one.
NDV can survive for several weeks in a warm and humid environment on birds' feathers, manure, and other materials. It can survive indefinitely in frozen material. However, the virus is destroyed rapidly by dehydration and by the ultraviolet rays in sunlight. Smuggled pet birds, especially Amazon parrots from Latin America, pose a great risk of introducing NDV into the US. Amazon parrots that are carriers of the disease but do not show symptoms are capable of shedding NDV for more than 400 days.
[edit]Clinical findings
[edit]Symptoms
Signs of infection with NDV vary greatly depending on factors such as the strain of virus and the health, age and species of the host.
The incubation period for the disease ranges from 2 to 15 days. An infected bird may exhibit the following signs:
They can include respiratory signs (gasping, coughing), nervous signs (depression, inappetence, muscular tremors, drooping wings, twisting of head and neck, circling, complete paralysis), swelling of the tissues around the eyes and neck, greenish, watery diarrhoea, misshapen, rough- or thin-shelled eggs and reduced egg production.
In acute cases, the death is very sudden, and, in the beginning of the outbreak, the remaining birds do not seem to be sick. In flock with good immunity, however, the signs (respiratory an digestive) are mild and progressive, and are followed after 7 days by nervous symptoms, especially twisted heads.
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[edit]Post-mortem lesions
Typical are the petechiae in proventriculus and on submucosae of gizzard; there is also severe enteritis of the duodenum. The lesions are scarce in hyperacute cases (first day of outbreak).
[edit]Diagnosis
[edit]Immunological tests
Enzyme Linked Immunosorbant Assay (ELISA), PCR, Sequence technology.
[edit]Virus isolation
[edit]Samples
For routine isolation of NDV from chickens, turkeys, and other birds, samples are obtained by swabbing the trachea and the cloaca. Cotton swabs can be used. The virus can also be isolated from the lungs, brain spleen, liver, and kidneys.
[edit]Handling
Prior to shipping samples should be stored at 4 C. (refrigerator). Samples must be shipped in a padded envelope or box. Samples may be sent by regular mail, but overnight is recommended.[5]
[edit]Prevention
Any animals that are showing symptoms of Newcastle Disease should be quarantined immediately. New birds should also be vaccinated before being introduced to your flock. There is an inactivated viral vaccine available, as well as various combination vaccines.
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INFECTIOUS BRONCHITIS
AND ITS EFFECT ON EGG PRODUCTION AND EGG QUALITY
By Dr. Gary D. Butcher and Dr. Richard Miles*Infectious bronchitis (IB) can be a devastating disease to any poultry operation. It affects chickens of all ages, types, and breeds. The disease is caused by a coronavirus which is known to have a high mutation rate. Thus, many serotypes (and subtypes) of IB virus exist in the United States and throughout the world. The arrival of new IB variants poses a continuous problem for the poultry industry.
The virus enters the body by the inhalation or conjunctival route. Infectious bronchitis is considered to be a highly contagious respiratory disease. Characteristically accompanying the disease are mild respiratory signs such as sneezing, snicking, gasping, and a watery discharge from the eyes and nostrils. In the respiratory tract, clear mucus and areas of inflammation are present. The mucus tends to accumulate in the lower part of the trachea and a mucus plug is sometimes found near the bronchi. Normally, if the virus spreads through the flock, all of the birds are affected. Many times the IB virus may spread through the flock without producing obvious clinical signs of disease except a mild cough. However, the virus may trigger a serious, long-lasting respiratory disease if Mycoplasma gallisepticum or Mycoplasma synoviae is present. The disease can be even more severe if complicated by E. coli infection.
Some strains of the virus, referred to as nephropathogenic IB viruses, infect the kidneys and cause permanent renal damage. Infected chickens excrete watery droppings, resulting in wet litter. Urates are common and can be identified easily in the droppings and in the kidneys and ureters at necropsy. The kidneys of affected birds are pale, mottled, and can be 2 to 3 times their normal size. Even though mortality in uncomplicated IB outbreaks can be relatively low, infection with nephropathogenic strains may cause high mortality.
The commercial egg-laying chicken has a level of productivity second to none. However, an outbreak of IB in a developing pullet flock may have devastating effects on future productivity. The reproductive tract and kidneys can be permanently damaged. In adult hens, depending on the strain of virus, an outbreak of IB will cause varying effects on egg production. If hens have low antibody titers, production drops can be severe. In birds with high titers, the only manifestation of the disease will be mild to severe effects on both egg shell and internal quality without affecting overall egg production. If production drops occur from IB, a decline in shell as well as internal quality should be expected. The negative influence IB has on egg quality may persist for many weeks or months after production has recovered.
The IB virus infects many tissues in the body. Every portion of the reproductive tract can be affected. A decline in egg shell quality occurs when the uterus is directly affected. This decline is reflected as poor egg specific gravity caused by a decline in shell thickness, and misshapen eggs caused by degeneration and distortion of the shell gland cells. Pullets infected with IB virus early in life may suffer permanent damage to the oviduct, resulting in misshapen eggs being produced throughout their life. Also, impacted oviducts, ruptured ova, internal layers, and cystic right oviducts are often a result of early IB virus infection.
Infectious bronchitis is also known to affect shell pigmentation. Uniformity of pigmentation in brown eggs is poor. Pale eggs can appear 2 to 5 days after exposure to the virus. The occurrences of pale eggs can persist for several weeks. There are other causes of pale eggs, but IB should be considered when pale eggs occur.
One of the major effects that the IB virus has on internal egg quality is its influence on the albumin. It is common for "watery whites," a serous thinning of the thick albumin, to occur in IB outbreaks. Thus, Haugh Unit values are greatly reduced. The watery albumin is a result of the IB virus destroying the endometrial mucin secreting cells in the magnum of the oviduct. The keeping quality of eggs from IB virus-infected hens is lessened. The decline in shell quality that accompanies IB out- breaks also promotes an accelerated decline in albumin quality.
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